Definition and Examples of Episteme in Rhetoric

In philosophy and  classical rhetoric, episteme is the domain of true knowledge--in contrast to doxa, the domain of opinion, belief, or probable knowledge. The Greek word episteme is sometimes translated as science or scientific knowledge.  The word epistemology (the study of the nature and scope of knowledge) is derived from  episteme.  Adjective: epistemic. French philosopher and philologist Michel Foucault (1926-1984) used  the term episteme  to indicate the total set of relations that unite a given period. Commentary [Plato] defends the solitary, silent nature of the search for episteme--truth: a search that leads one away from the crowd and the multitude. Platos aim is to take away from the majority the right to judge, choose, and decide. (Renato Barilli, Rhetoric. University of Minnesota Press, 1989) Knowledge and Skill [In Greek usage] episteme could mean both knowledge and skill, both knowing that and knowing how. . . . Each of the artisans, a smith, a shoemaker, a sculptor, even a poet exhibited episteme in practicing his trade. The word episteme, knowledge, was thus very close in meaning to the word tekhne, skill. (Jaakko Hintikka,  Knowledge and the Known: Historical Perspectives in Epistemology. Kluwer, 1991) Episteme vs. Doxa - Beginning with Plato, the idea of episteme was juxtaposed to the idea of doxa. This contrast was one of the key means by which Plato fashioned his powerful critique of rhetoric (Ijsseling, 1976; Hariman, 1986). For Plato, episteme was an expression, or a statement that conveys, absolute certainty (Havelock, 1963, p. 34; see also Scott, 1967) or a means for producing such expressions or statements. Doxa, on the other hand, was a decidedly inferior expression of opinion or probability...A world committed to the ideal of episteme is a world of clear and fixed truth, absolute certainty, and stable knowledge. The only possibility for rhetoric in such a world would be to make truth effective... A radical gulf is presumed to exist between discovering  truth (the province of philosophy or science) and the lesser task of disseminating it (the province of rhetoric). (James Jasinski, Sourcebook on Rhetoric. Sage, 2001)- Since it is not in human nature to acquire knowledge (episteme) that would make us certain what to do or say, I consider one wise who has the ability through conjecture (doxai) to attain the best choice: I call philosophers those that engage themselves with that from which this sort of practical wisdom (phronesis) is speedily grasped. (Isocrates, Antidosis, 353 BC) Episteme and Techne I have no criticism to make of episteme as a system of knowledge. On the contrary, one can argue that we would not be human without our command of episteme. The problem is rather the claim made on behalf of episteme that it is all of the knowledge, from which stems its proclivity to crowd out other, equally important, systems of knowledge. While episteme is essential to our humanness, so is techne. Indeed, it is our ability to combine techne and episteme that sets us apart both from other animals and from computers: animals have techne and machines have episteme, but only we humans have both. (Oliver Sackss clinical histories (1985) are at once moving as well as entertaining evidence for the grotesque, bizarre, and even tragic distortions of human beings that result from a loss of either techne or episteme.) (Stephen A. Marglin, Farmers, Seedsmen, and Scientists: Systems of Agriculture and Systems of Knowledge.  Decolonizing Knowledge: From Development to Dialogue, ed. by  Frà ©dà ©rique Apffel-Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin. Oxford University Press, 2004) Foucaults Concept of Episteme [In  Michel Foucaults The Order of Things] the archaeological method attempts to uncover a positive unconscious of knowledge. This term denotes a set of rules of formation which are constitutive of the diverse and heterogeneous discourses of a given period and which elude the consciousness of the practitioners of these different discourses.  This positive unconscious of knowledge is also captured in  the term episteme. The episteme is the condition of possibility of discourse in a given period; it is an a priori set of rules of formation that allow discourses to function, that allow different objects and different themes to be spoken at one time but not at another. Source:   (Lois McNay,  Foucault: A Critical Introduction. Polity Press, 1994)

The Dubliners Not Just Another Pretty Face - 1464 Words

The Dubliners is a series of short stories by James Joyce first published in 1914. They form a picture of Irish middle class life in Dublin in the early years of the 20th century. The last book, The Dead, is considered to be the finest of the entire series. In this story we have the protagonist, Gabriel Conroy. He â€Å"is insecure, egotistical and demonstrates in his awkward attempts at communion, an often-profound misunderstanding of his companions (Free 282).† He is also the â€Å"favourite nephew†(Joyce 558) of the Morkan sisters who invited he and his wife Gretta to the annual Christmas dinner. Gabriel does what most good nephews do which is to be pleasant company and perform the typical male gendered tasks, such as carving the goose.†¦show more content†¦This encounter with Lily sets the demeaning tone of insecurity in Gabriel for the remainder of the evening. As he skips hurriedly away and the night goes on, Gabriel is partnered up for the festive holiday dance with Miss Ivors. Miss Ivors is a a true Irish nationalist at heart. She is like an Irish Susan B. Anthony, who can size up Gabriel with a lashing tongue of ego busting insults that gets Gabriel’s feelings twisted, which makes this dance between them anything but festive. Miss Ivors starts the tirade by telling him that she has a â€Å"crow to pluck†(Joyce 563) which starts the conversation off with her using an authoritative voice. Miss. Ivors uses numerous insults such as an â€Å"innocent Amy† (Joyce 563) or â€Å"West Briton† (Joyce 563). She proceeds insulting him about his job for The Daily Express, belittling the job to mere trash or â€Å"rag like that† (Joyce 563). Miss Ivors engages Gabriel by taking the lead in the dance when she tells him â€Å"Come, we cross now† (Joyce 563). Gabriel’s fury comes to a head when Mis s Ivors invites him and his wife to a holiday trip to the west coast of Ireland with them, and when pressed why he won’t come along with them he retorts back that â€Å"Im sick of my own country, sick of it! (Joyce 564)† Gabriel couldn’t even give an answer as to why he doesnt like his own country. So Miss Ivors closes the dance with the biting insult of â€Å"West Briton†(Joyce 565) and then we see Gabriel, clearly upset and beaten, going â€Å"to a remote corner ofShow MoreRelatedDubliners By James Joyce s Dubliners1419 Words   |  6 PagesJames Joyce’s Dubliners is an assortment of brief stories in which he criticizes twentieth century Dublin. In these stories, Joyce analyzes the paralysis that entices the characters in Dublin and forbids them from accomplishing their desires and goals; rather than relentlessly trying to conquer the obstacles that stand in their way, they give up on achieving their goals in all. During this time period, man y gender inequalities are occurring, and women are often brushed-aside by society and more oftenRead MoreEveline3513 Words   |  15 Pagesstories, Dubliners. Dubliners consists of 15 stories and each of them unfolds lives of many different Dubliners vividly. By describing details of ordinary life and characters inner life, which is described by their interior monologue, Joyce succeeds in showing the realistic landscape of the inner space of Dubliners as well as that of outer space, the city Dublin at the turn of the century. Joyce tries to emphasize the fact that Dublin is not in the healthy state by showing unhealthy Dubliners. In DublinRead MoreThe taste of melon by borden deal11847 Words   |  48 Pagesanalyse story structure ââ€"   identify changes in the narrator’s perspective ââ€"   interpret characters’ motives 130 Look Closely D E A L When I think of the summer I was sixteen, a lot of things some crowding in to be thought about. We had moved just the year before, and sixteen is still young enough that the bunch makes a difference. I had a bunch, all right, but they weren’t sure of me yet. I didn’t know why. Maybe because I’d lived in town, and my father still worked there instead of farmingRead MoreANALIZ TEXT INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS28843 Words   |  116 Pagespoint of the narrative actually occurs. Nor is there any special reason that the crisis should occur at or near the middle of the plot. It can, in fact, occur at any moment. In James Joyce’s â€Å"Araby† and in a number of the other companion stories in â€Å"Dubliners† the crisis – in the form of a sudden illumination that Joyce called an epiphany – occurs at the very end of the story, and the falling action and the resolution are dispensed with altogether. Exposition and complication can also be omitted in favour

Globalization and Drug Trafficking Free Essays

Cheniece Bray Professor Hooper ENGL 1133 P19 12 November 2012 Annotated Bibliography II Working Title: Globalization and Drug Trafficking| Topic Description: Nations worldwide have been facing and losing the war on drugs for some time now. Innocent citizens are affected with the negative side effects due to drug trafficking such as violence resulting in death, lack of government assistance to halt the issue, and increase of crime rates. In this paper I would like to discuss the actions that can be taken to help stop drug trafficking worldwide, starting with one of the main drug routes from Mexico to the United States and other areas globally. We will write a custom essay sample on Globalization and Drug Trafficking or any similar topic only for you Order Now I believe the war on drugs can be defeated if it is attacked by the government on every level federal, state, and local. | Working Thesis: What can be imposed to stop the violence and high crime rate related to drug trafficking and also decrease the flow of drugs across borders? | Source #1| Stout, R. (2012). Do the United States and Mexico Really Want the Drug War To Succeed? Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine, 63(8), 34. | This article stands out to me because it addresses one of my many concerns for this topic and that would be what is the government doing in order to defeat this war on drugs? Why is it so easy for drugs to travel past borders where government militia is stationed? Stout presents an argument in this article discussing what militarized efforts are being enforced to stop Mexican cartels as it seems like there is not much being done. Prosecution of offenders is not enough because even behind bars somehow kingpins still find a way for drugs to be distributed across the border into the United States. Most drug cartels â€Å"financed the construction and operation of luxurious night clubs, gourmet restaurants, and gambling activities that attracted large numbers of U. S. residents† (Stout, 2012, p. 2) making it very easy for individuals to gain access to these illegal drugs. | Source #2| Eight Steps to Effectively Controlling Drug Abuse And the Drug Market Retrieved from http://www. csdp. rg/news/news/8steps. htm| This online article offers many alternatives beside persecution that could be used to effectively control drug abuse and the control the striving drug market. I will use this article to help me with ideas of what policies would be best enforced inside Mexico to regulate cartels. The government is not achieving much in the war on drugs by simply putting the offenders in jail because that is costing t hem a lump sum of money along with the problem still ongoing because the offender will eventually get out and continue to do the same things. This article describes how the money being used to put offenders in jail could instead but used to treat, prevent, and educate offenders as the law enforcement should understand that their job is not enough to stop these powerful cartels. Drug trafficking is a problem and should be treated as one instead of a burden that continues to get recycled. | Source #3| Gleason C. (2008). Financial Cost of the War on Drugs Retrieved from http://suite101. com/article/financial-cost-of-the-war-on-drugs-a53068 | In this article Gleason demonstrates how much money is being spent to try and stop the war on drugs. This article will be useful to me because it will help me get a understanding of how much money is spent to house an inmate in jail who has been constantly convicted of using and selling illegal drugs, also providing and paying police officers with drug units to help stop drug trafficking. Gleason’s article was useful and corresponded well the topic I chose over drug trafficking, although this article is biased it helped me formulate an opinion after I observed how much money the government has dispersed and seemingly wasted trying to prevent the use and movement of drug trafficking . This will be used in my research paper to give an example of the cost in the government trying to solve this ongoing problem. | Source #4| Jenner, M. S. (2011). International Drug Trafficking: A Global Problem with a Domestic Solution. Indiana Journal Of Global Legal Studies, 18(2), 901-927. | In this article Jenner explains many ways in which drug trafficking can be controlled, one of the ways Jenner discusses is the universal legalization of drugs. I will use this in my research paper as a policy that can be put into place to help eventually stop drug trafficking. Legalization would attack the drug market in a very sensitive matter; if drugs are legal the head â€Å"kingpins† of nations delivering narcotics, cannabis, and other drugs are unable to receive a profit from the drug trade therefore defeating the purpose of the whole process which is money and control. If this policy would ever be considered, control would then again be in the hands of the government and out of the violent drug cartels worldwide. | How to cite Globalization and Drug Trafficking, Essay examples

African Civilization free essay sample

Although some may think of Africa as being of a single climate and terrain description, in reality a wide variety of land types can be found throughout Africa. How does this wide variety of climates and physical terrains affect human life and settlement patterns on the African continent? Different terrains and climates allowed for different lifestyles for Africans in different regions. Those close to the sea were susceptible to invasion, but had the advantage of maritime trade. Those living more in land were isolated but protected by the diseases visitors would contract that did not affect the locals. Due to the fact that Africa is so massive, it has many different climates and terrain types. Some are more favorable to living conditions for humans and some not so much such as the Sahara Desert. Page Ref: 4-8 Topic: Physical Features of the Continent 2. Despite its large size, much of Africa has a very low population density. What are the reasons that most of Africa’s population is crowded in a few small regions? This is due to the fact that there are a few areas in which the soil is not poor. Areas such as volcanic highlands; in which are cooler and have richer soils, allowing for important crops to grow. Page Ref: 8-9 Topic: Challenges of the African Environment 3. What factors limit the agricultural viability of land in Africa? Why is this seen more in some parts of the continent than in others? Assess how these factors would most likely affect human populations in Africa. There are parts of Africa in which the soil is very poor due to years of inactivity. This makes it harder for farmers to tend and grow crops. Other parts get barely any rain or too much rain. Human population would be more prominent in areas where there is good soil, allowing for the flourishing of society. Page Ref: 9 4. How has the presence of disease in Africa served as both a positive and a negative factor throughout its history? Diseases in Africa served as a positive in that it protected Africans from invasions. Outsiders who tried to invade where not accustom to tropical parts of the Country which carried many diseases. The locals were born in raised in these areas which made them fair better as their immune systems were adapted to these diseases. Page Ref: 9-12 5. There are several primary differences between malaria and yellow fever in terms of their effects on humans. Considering the differences between the two, which disease would have had a greater effect on preventing foreign intervention and advancement in Africa? When supporting your answer, consider the effect these diseases had on indigenous populations as well. Yellow Fever would have the greater effect on preventing foreign invasion. This is true because unlike malaria Africans usually contract yellow fever as kids and become immune to it, unlike outsiders who are not. Malaria is both equally fatal to outsiders as it is to locals, especially cerebral malaria. Page Ref: 9-11 6. Assess the role of trypanosomiasis in the formation of the African economy. Provide specific examples to support your assessment. Trypanosomiasis affected the formation of the African economy by the way it affected animals. Due to the fact that this disease killed many animals, areas in which the disease was prevalent would hurt the local economy. It prevented people in these areas to keep cattle which were important for their livelihoods. Additionally, the fact that this disease was cruel to Horses, the military would be affected as well, due to the sheer importance of horses for military uses. 7. Consider explanations given for the rising number of cases of trypanosomiasis in the recent past. What effects do you feel this increase and the cause behind it would have on life in Africa amongst native populations as well as foreign settlers? As long as there are areas that are depopulated, tsetse flies will begin to redeveloped in these areas. This will cause cattle to die out and affect the local and foreign farmers. Page Ref: 12 8. Despite very similar climates, the histories of Africa and Australia and its surrounding islands have been very different. Consider the theory presented in the text to explain this reality, and assess how it can be applied to North America. This can be applied to North America, due to the fact that as climates and terrains change and diseases take a toll on population, one must adapt with the environment in which we live in. Page Ref: 12-13 Topic: The African Environment in Global Perspective . Consider how Africa’s geography has changed over time. What positive and negative effects would these changes have had on human populations on the continent? As their new homes changed they were able to adapt due to their innovative mindset. This can be attributed to the new found organization thanks to language. Allowing Africans to grow and expand throughout the entire continent. Other factors that can be attributed are the change in geography for some parts such as the Sahara drying out and swamps and lakes disappeared. Page Ref: 4-8 Topic: Physical Features of the Continent 0. Compare African geography to North American geography. Despite any similarities, significant differences exist in agricultural patterns and population density. What are the reasons for these differences, and how do they reflect the uniqueness of Africa? Africa is an extremely big continent and because of this there are many different climates and terrains. North America can fit three times in the continent of Africa. Although North America has a vast set of climates and terrains as well, it does not have to deal with the sheer size of Africa in order to flourish. North America also tends to get an even amount of rain throughout the continent, unlike Africa. In Africa the people must take advantage of the rich terrains, reason why some areas are so populated as opposed to others. Page Ref: 4-8 Chapter 2 Africa and Human Origins 1. How did the theories espoused by biologists such as Carl Linnaeus and Charles Darwin alter previous perceptions of human origins and animal life on earth? What role do you believe these theories had in establishing Africa as the original home of human life on earth? Both Carl and Charles believed that humans adapted from a primates. This way of thinking that humans adapted from a past species due to environmental changes, got the ball rolling on a way of thinking involving evolution. As a result of the remains of a skeleton that was found in Germany that could not be identified. This seemed to give proof to the idea of adaptation. Because the earliest human ancestor specimen remains were found in Africa, gave light to it being the origin of human life on earth. Page Ref: 15-16 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Origins and the Notion of Race . Why do paleontologists believe that fossils of creatures such as Australopithecus africanus and Homo erectus are ancestors of modern humans? Do you find this evidence to be credible? Why or why not? I do find the evidence to be credible due to the many similarities between their structure and ours. As we have found through history, that all living things adapt to their environment. We are just a mor e adapted form of these fossils. Page Ref: 16-19 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives to the 1980s 3. What effect did the mobility of Homo erectus have on the course of human history? Why is this important, and what does it signal about its role in evolutionary biology? The mobility of Homo erectus allowed for the developments of tools such as the Acheulean. They also were the first to expand into different environments, allowing for expansion and population growth. This affected human history in a great way, because their expansion allowed for the growth and survival of the human race. Page Ref: 18-19 4. What potential flaws do you see with the Multiregional model of human development? Assess the evidence in support of this model. The evidence that an extra evolution only passed through Europe is sketchy. There is nothing to prove that Neanderthals only existed in Europe and nowhere else. All past Homo species eventually evolved into what we are today. That should show us that we are all equal and no race is superior to the other. Page Ref: 19 5. How have paleontological discoveries made within the past few decades contributed to our knowledge about the origins and evolution of modern humans? Were these all in Africa? What might explain this? Through the discovery of the past fossils it gave us proof of human evolution through time. Not all were found in Africa as there was one found in Germany for example. However it appears that the oldest fossils we evolved from are indeed found in Africa. Page Ref: 19-22 Topic: New Perspectives and Debates since the 1980s 6. How does the â€Å"Out of Africa† model differ from the â€Å"Multiregional model†? What evidence exists to show that one is probably more accurate than the other? The main difference is that in the Out of Africa model; most of the evolution took place in Africa. While in the Multiregional model evolution occurred in isolation in different areas of the world. And additionally, there was an extra evolution step in Europe. Most of the fossil evidence supports the Out of Africa model and most experts agree in that all humans derive from Africa originally. Page Ref: 19, 21-22 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives to the 1980s, New Perspectives and Debates since the 1980s 7. The issue of race has long been controversial in evolutionary biology and related fields of study. What does the â€Å"Out of Africa† model contribute to the debate on race, and what does it mean for theories on race as a biological construct? This model states that all humans are the same race essentially (African) and it does not matter what color skin we are if the origins all trace back to Africa. The theories of race are only about individuality and social and political classes. At the end of the day everybody is just one race: human. Page Ref: 22 Topic: Questioning Race 8. What is the significance of Neanderthal fossils? How do these differ from other fossils, and how have they contributed to ideas regarding race and racial superiority? Neanderthal fossils are the closest fossils to the human race. They have the closest skull measurements, essentially making them closest to being as smart as humans today. Neanderthals since the 1980’s are considered the end of an evolution for a species that is radically different from modern humans. However, before this determination the Europeans viewed the Neanderthals as an example of racial superiority. Page Ref: 19 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives to the 1980s 9. Where do early ideas about race and race specific characteristics originate? What does this signify about Europeans prior to the development of evolutionary biology and related theories regarding the development of racial differences? They originated from the scientist trying to find proof of races superiority over another one. Europeans were trying to justify racial segregation, denial of rights, and colonial rule. Page Ref: 15-16 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Origins and the Notion of Race 10. How has the Human Genome Project been used to establish Africa’s place in the story of human origins? What has it revealed, and what does it signify about evolutionary biology and the â€Å"Out of Africa† model? It proved that all human population shares an incredibly close genetic relationship. It also proved that humans lived in Africa longer than any other part of the world.