Definition and Examples of Episteme in Rhetoric

In philosophy and  classical rhetoric, episteme is the domain of true knowledge--in contrast to doxa, the domain of opinion, belief, or probable knowledge. The Greek word episteme is sometimes translated as science or scientific knowledge.  The word epistemology (the study of the nature and scope of knowledge) is derived from  episteme.  Adjective: epistemic. French philosopher and philologist Michel Foucault (1926-1984) used  the term episteme  to indicate the total set of relations that unite a given period. Commentary [Plato] defends the solitary, silent nature of the search for episteme--truth: a search that leads one away from the crowd and the multitude. Platos aim is to take away from the majority the right to judge, choose, and decide. (Renato Barilli, Rhetoric. University of Minnesota Press, 1989) Knowledge and Skill [In Greek usage] episteme could mean both knowledge and skill, both knowing that and knowing how. . . . Each of the artisans, a smith, a shoemaker, a sculptor, even a poet exhibited episteme in practicing his trade. The word episteme, knowledge, was thus very close in meaning to the word tekhne, skill. (Jaakko Hintikka,  Knowledge and the Known: Historical Perspectives in Epistemology. Kluwer, 1991) Episteme vs. Doxa - Beginning with Plato, the idea of episteme was juxtaposed to the idea of doxa. This contrast was one of the key means by which Plato fashioned his powerful critique of rhetoric (Ijsseling, 1976; Hariman, 1986). For Plato, episteme was an expression, or a statement that conveys, absolute certainty (Havelock, 1963, p. 34; see also Scott, 1967) or a means for producing such expressions or statements. Doxa, on the other hand, was a decidedly inferior expression of opinion or probability...A world committed to the ideal of episteme is a world of clear and fixed truth, absolute certainty, and stable knowledge. The only possibility for rhetoric in such a world would be to make truth effective... A radical gulf is presumed to exist between discovering  truth (the province of philosophy or science) and the lesser task of disseminating it (the province of rhetoric). (James Jasinski, Sourcebook on Rhetoric. Sage, 2001)- Since it is not in human nature to acquire knowledge (episteme) that would make us certain what to do or say, I consider one wise who has the ability through conjecture (doxai) to attain the best choice: I call philosophers those that engage themselves with that from which this sort of practical wisdom (phronesis) is speedily grasped. (Isocrates, Antidosis, 353 BC) Episteme and Techne I have no criticism to make of episteme as a system of knowledge. On the contrary, one can argue that we would not be human without our command of episteme. The problem is rather the claim made on behalf of episteme that it is all of the knowledge, from which stems its proclivity to crowd out other, equally important, systems of knowledge. While episteme is essential to our humanness, so is techne. Indeed, it is our ability to combine techne and episteme that sets us apart both from other animals and from computers: animals have techne and machines have episteme, but only we humans have both. (Oliver Sackss clinical histories (1985) are at once moving as well as entertaining evidence for the grotesque, bizarre, and even tragic distortions of human beings that result from a loss of either techne or episteme.) (Stephen A. Marglin, Farmers, Seedsmen, and Scientists: Systems of Agriculture and Systems of Knowledge.  Decolonizing Knowledge: From Development to Dialogue, ed. by  Frà ©dà ©rique Apffel-Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin. Oxford University Press, 2004) Foucaults Concept of Episteme [In  Michel Foucaults The Order of Things] the archaeological method attempts to uncover a positive unconscious of knowledge. This term denotes a set of rules of formation which are constitutive of the diverse and heterogeneous discourses of a given period and which elude the consciousness of the practitioners of these different discourses.  This positive unconscious of knowledge is also captured in  the term episteme. The episteme is the condition of possibility of discourse in a given period; it is an a priori set of rules of formation that allow discourses to function, that allow different objects and different themes to be spoken at one time but not at another. Source:   (Lois McNay,  Foucault: A Critical Introduction. Polity Press, 1994)

The Dubliners Not Just Another Pretty Face - 1464 Words

The Dubliners is a series of short stories by James Joyce first published in 1914. They form a picture of Irish middle class life in Dublin in the early years of the 20th century. The last book, The Dead, is considered to be the finest of the entire series. In this story we have the protagonist, Gabriel Conroy. He â€Å"is insecure, egotistical and demonstrates in his awkward attempts at communion, an often-profound misunderstanding of his companions (Free 282).† He is also the â€Å"favourite nephew†(Joyce 558) of the Morkan sisters who invited he and his wife Gretta to the annual Christmas dinner. Gabriel does what most good nephews do which is to be pleasant company and perform the typical male gendered tasks, such as carving the goose.†¦show more content†¦This encounter with Lily sets the demeaning tone of insecurity in Gabriel for the remainder of the evening. As he skips hurriedly away and the night goes on, Gabriel is partnered up for the festive holiday dance with Miss Ivors. Miss Ivors is a a true Irish nationalist at heart. She is like an Irish Susan B. Anthony, who can size up Gabriel with a lashing tongue of ego busting insults that gets Gabriel’s feelings twisted, which makes this dance between them anything but festive. Miss Ivors starts the tirade by telling him that she has a â€Å"crow to pluck†(Joyce 563) which starts the conversation off with her using an authoritative voice. Miss. Ivors uses numerous insults such as an â€Å"innocent Amy† (Joyce 563) or â€Å"West Briton† (Joyce 563). She proceeds insulting him about his job for The Daily Express, belittling the job to mere trash or â€Å"rag like that† (Joyce 563). Miss Ivors engages Gabriel by taking the lead in the dance when she tells him â€Å"Come, we cross now† (Joyce 563). Gabriel’s fury comes to a head when Mis s Ivors invites him and his wife to a holiday trip to the west coast of Ireland with them, and when pressed why he won’t come along with them he retorts back that â€Å"Im sick of my own country, sick of it! (Joyce 564)† Gabriel couldn’t even give an answer as to why he doesnt like his own country. So Miss Ivors closes the dance with the biting insult of â€Å"West Briton†(Joyce 565) and then we see Gabriel, clearly upset and beaten, going â€Å"to a remote corner ofShow MoreRelatedDubliners By James Joyce s Dubliners1419 Words   |  6 PagesJames Joyce’s Dubliners is an assortment of brief stories in which he criticizes twentieth century Dublin. In these stories, Joyce analyzes the paralysis that entices the characters in Dublin and forbids them from accomplishing their desires and goals; rather than relentlessly trying to conquer the obstacles that stand in their way, they give up on achieving their goals in all. During this time period, man y gender inequalities are occurring, and women are often brushed-aside by society and more oftenRead MoreEveline3513 Words   |  15 Pagesstories, Dubliners. Dubliners consists of 15 stories and each of them unfolds lives of many different Dubliners vividly. By describing details of ordinary life and characters inner life, which is described by their interior monologue, Joyce succeeds in showing the realistic landscape of the inner space of Dubliners as well as that of outer space, the city Dublin at the turn of the century. Joyce tries to emphasize the fact that Dublin is not in the healthy state by showing unhealthy Dubliners. In DublinRead MoreThe taste of melon by borden deal11847 Words   |  48 Pagesanalyse story structure ââ€"   identify changes in the narrator’s perspective ââ€"   interpret characters’ motives 130 Look Closely D E A L When I think of the summer I was sixteen, a lot of things some crowding in to be thought about. We had moved just the year before, and sixteen is still young enough that the bunch makes a difference. I had a bunch, all right, but they weren’t sure of me yet. I didn’t know why. Maybe because I’d lived in town, and my father still worked there instead of farmingRead MoreANALIZ TEXT INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS28843 Words   |  116 Pagespoint of the narrative actually occurs. Nor is there any special reason that the crisis should occur at or near the middle of the plot. It can, in fact, occur at any moment. In James Joyce’s â€Å"Araby† and in a number of the other companion stories in â€Å"Dubliners† the crisis – in the form of a sudden illumination that Joyce called an epiphany – occurs at the very end of the story, and the falling action and the resolution are dispensed with altogether. Exposition and complication can also be omitted in favour

Globalization and Drug Trafficking Free Essays

Cheniece Bray Professor Hooper ENGL 1133 P19 12 November 2012 Annotated Bibliography II Working Title: Globalization and Drug Trafficking| Topic Description: Nations worldwide have been facing and losing the war on drugs for some time now. Innocent citizens are affected with the negative side effects due to drug trafficking such as violence resulting in death, lack of government assistance to halt the issue, and increase of crime rates. In this paper I would like to discuss the actions that can be taken to help stop drug trafficking worldwide, starting with one of the main drug routes from Mexico to the United States and other areas globally. We will write a custom essay sample on Globalization and Drug Trafficking or any similar topic only for you Order Now I believe the war on drugs can be defeated if it is attacked by the government on every level federal, state, and local. | Working Thesis: What can be imposed to stop the violence and high crime rate related to drug trafficking and also decrease the flow of drugs across borders? | Source #1| Stout, R. (2012). Do the United States and Mexico Really Want the Drug War To Succeed? Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine, 63(8), 34. | This article stands out to me because it addresses one of my many concerns for this topic and that would be what is the government doing in order to defeat this war on drugs? Why is it so easy for drugs to travel past borders where government militia is stationed? Stout presents an argument in this article discussing what militarized efforts are being enforced to stop Mexican cartels as it seems like there is not much being done. Prosecution of offenders is not enough because even behind bars somehow kingpins still find a way for drugs to be distributed across the border into the United States. Most drug cartels â€Å"financed the construction and operation of luxurious night clubs, gourmet restaurants, and gambling activities that attracted large numbers of U. S. residents† (Stout, 2012, p. 2) making it very easy for individuals to gain access to these illegal drugs. | Source #2| Eight Steps to Effectively Controlling Drug Abuse And the Drug Market Retrieved from http://www. csdp. rg/news/news/8steps. htm| This online article offers many alternatives beside persecution that could be used to effectively control drug abuse and the control the striving drug market. I will use this article to help me with ideas of what policies would be best enforced inside Mexico to regulate cartels. The government is not achieving much in the war on drugs by simply putting the offenders in jail because that is costing t hem a lump sum of money along with the problem still ongoing because the offender will eventually get out and continue to do the same things. This article describes how the money being used to put offenders in jail could instead but used to treat, prevent, and educate offenders as the law enforcement should understand that their job is not enough to stop these powerful cartels. Drug trafficking is a problem and should be treated as one instead of a burden that continues to get recycled. | Source #3| Gleason C. (2008). Financial Cost of the War on Drugs Retrieved from http://suite101. com/article/financial-cost-of-the-war-on-drugs-a53068 | In this article Gleason demonstrates how much money is being spent to try and stop the war on drugs. This article will be useful to me because it will help me get a understanding of how much money is spent to house an inmate in jail who has been constantly convicted of using and selling illegal drugs, also providing and paying police officers with drug units to help stop drug trafficking. Gleason’s article was useful and corresponded well the topic I chose over drug trafficking, although this article is biased it helped me formulate an opinion after I observed how much money the government has dispersed and seemingly wasted trying to prevent the use and movement of drug trafficking . This will be used in my research paper to give an example of the cost in the government trying to solve this ongoing problem. | Source #4| Jenner, M. S. (2011). International Drug Trafficking: A Global Problem with a Domestic Solution. Indiana Journal Of Global Legal Studies, 18(2), 901-927. | In this article Jenner explains many ways in which drug trafficking can be controlled, one of the ways Jenner discusses is the universal legalization of drugs. I will use this in my research paper as a policy that can be put into place to help eventually stop drug trafficking. Legalization would attack the drug market in a very sensitive matter; if drugs are legal the head â€Å"kingpins† of nations delivering narcotics, cannabis, and other drugs are unable to receive a profit from the drug trade therefore defeating the purpose of the whole process which is money and control. If this policy would ever be considered, control would then again be in the hands of the government and out of the violent drug cartels worldwide. | How to cite Globalization and Drug Trafficking, Essay examples

African Civilization free essay sample

Although some may think of Africa as being of a single climate and terrain description, in reality a wide variety of land types can be found throughout Africa. How does this wide variety of climates and physical terrains affect human life and settlement patterns on the African continent? Different terrains and climates allowed for different lifestyles for Africans in different regions. Those close to the sea were susceptible to invasion, but had the advantage of maritime trade. Those living more in land were isolated but protected by the diseases visitors would contract that did not affect the locals. Due to the fact that Africa is so massive, it has many different climates and terrain types. Some are more favorable to living conditions for humans and some not so much such as the Sahara Desert. Page Ref: 4-8 Topic: Physical Features of the Continent 2. Despite its large size, much of Africa has a very low population density. What are the reasons that most of Africa’s population is crowded in a few small regions? This is due to the fact that there are a few areas in which the soil is not poor. Areas such as volcanic highlands; in which are cooler and have richer soils, allowing for important crops to grow. Page Ref: 8-9 Topic: Challenges of the African Environment 3. What factors limit the agricultural viability of land in Africa? Why is this seen more in some parts of the continent than in others? Assess how these factors would most likely affect human populations in Africa. There are parts of Africa in which the soil is very poor due to years of inactivity. This makes it harder for farmers to tend and grow crops. Other parts get barely any rain or too much rain. Human population would be more prominent in areas where there is good soil, allowing for the flourishing of society. Page Ref: 9 4. How has the presence of disease in Africa served as both a positive and a negative factor throughout its history? Diseases in Africa served as a positive in that it protected Africans from invasions. Outsiders who tried to invade where not accustom to tropical parts of the Country which carried many diseases. The locals were born in raised in these areas which made them fair better as their immune systems were adapted to these diseases. Page Ref: 9-12 5. There are several primary differences between malaria and yellow fever in terms of their effects on humans. Considering the differences between the two, which disease would have had a greater effect on preventing foreign intervention and advancement in Africa? When supporting your answer, consider the effect these diseases had on indigenous populations as well. Yellow Fever would have the greater effect on preventing foreign invasion. This is true because unlike malaria Africans usually contract yellow fever as kids and become immune to it, unlike outsiders who are not. Malaria is both equally fatal to outsiders as it is to locals, especially cerebral malaria. Page Ref: 9-11 6. Assess the role of trypanosomiasis in the formation of the African economy. Provide specific examples to support your assessment. Trypanosomiasis affected the formation of the African economy by the way it affected animals. Due to the fact that this disease killed many animals, areas in which the disease was prevalent would hurt the local economy. It prevented people in these areas to keep cattle which were important for their livelihoods. Additionally, the fact that this disease was cruel to Horses, the military would be affected as well, due to the sheer importance of horses for military uses. 7. Consider explanations given for the rising number of cases of trypanosomiasis in the recent past. What effects do you feel this increase and the cause behind it would have on life in Africa amongst native populations as well as foreign settlers? As long as there are areas that are depopulated, tsetse flies will begin to redeveloped in these areas. This will cause cattle to die out and affect the local and foreign farmers. Page Ref: 12 8. Despite very similar climates, the histories of Africa and Australia and its surrounding islands have been very different. Consider the theory presented in the text to explain this reality, and assess how it can be applied to North America. This can be applied to North America, due to the fact that as climates and terrains change and diseases take a toll on population, one must adapt with the environment in which we live in. Page Ref: 12-13 Topic: The African Environment in Global Perspective . Consider how Africa’s geography has changed over time. What positive and negative effects would these changes have had on human populations on the continent? As their new homes changed they were able to adapt due to their innovative mindset. This can be attributed to the new found organization thanks to language. Allowing Africans to grow and expand throughout the entire continent. Other factors that can be attributed are the change in geography for some parts such as the Sahara drying out and swamps and lakes disappeared. Page Ref: 4-8 Topic: Physical Features of the Continent 0. Compare African geography to North American geography. Despite any similarities, significant differences exist in agricultural patterns and population density. What are the reasons for these differences, and how do they reflect the uniqueness of Africa? Africa is an extremely big continent and because of this there are many different climates and terrains. North America can fit three times in the continent of Africa. Although North America has a vast set of climates and terrains as well, it does not have to deal with the sheer size of Africa in order to flourish. North America also tends to get an even amount of rain throughout the continent, unlike Africa. In Africa the people must take advantage of the rich terrains, reason why some areas are so populated as opposed to others. Page Ref: 4-8 Chapter 2 Africa and Human Origins 1. How did the theories espoused by biologists such as Carl Linnaeus and Charles Darwin alter previous perceptions of human origins and animal life on earth? What role do you believe these theories had in establishing Africa as the original home of human life on earth? Both Carl and Charles believed that humans adapted from a primates. This way of thinking that humans adapted from a past species due to environmental changes, got the ball rolling on a way of thinking involving evolution. As a result of the remains of a skeleton that was found in Germany that could not be identified. This seemed to give proof to the idea of adaptation. Because the earliest human ancestor specimen remains were found in Africa, gave light to it being the origin of human life on earth. Page Ref: 15-16 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Origins and the Notion of Race . Why do paleontologists believe that fossils of creatures such as Australopithecus africanus and Homo erectus are ancestors of modern humans? Do you find this evidence to be credible? Why or why not? I do find the evidence to be credible due to the many similarities between their structure and ours. As we have found through history, that all living things adapt to their environment. We are just a mor e adapted form of these fossils. Page Ref: 16-19 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives to the 1980s 3. What effect did the mobility of Homo erectus have on the course of human history? Why is this important, and what does it signal about its role in evolutionary biology? The mobility of Homo erectus allowed for the developments of tools such as the Acheulean. They also were the first to expand into different environments, allowing for expansion and population growth. This affected human history in a great way, because their expansion allowed for the growth and survival of the human race. Page Ref: 18-19 4. What potential flaws do you see with the Multiregional model of human development? Assess the evidence in support of this model. The evidence that an extra evolution only passed through Europe is sketchy. There is nothing to prove that Neanderthals only existed in Europe and nowhere else. All past Homo species eventually evolved into what we are today. That should show us that we are all equal and no race is superior to the other. Page Ref: 19 5. How have paleontological discoveries made within the past few decades contributed to our knowledge about the origins and evolution of modern humans? Were these all in Africa? What might explain this? Through the discovery of the past fossils it gave us proof of human evolution through time. Not all were found in Africa as there was one found in Germany for example. However it appears that the oldest fossils we evolved from are indeed found in Africa. Page Ref: 19-22 Topic: New Perspectives and Debates since the 1980s 6. How does the â€Å"Out of Africa† model differ from the â€Å"Multiregional model†? What evidence exists to show that one is probably more accurate than the other? The main difference is that in the Out of Africa model; most of the evolution took place in Africa. While in the Multiregional model evolution occurred in isolation in different areas of the world. And additionally, there was an extra evolution step in Europe. Most of the fossil evidence supports the Out of Africa model and most experts agree in that all humans derive from Africa originally. Page Ref: 19, 21-22 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives to the 1980s, New Perspectives and Debates since the 1980s 7. The issue of race has long been controversial in evolutionary biology and related fields of study. What does the â€Å"Out of Africa† model contribute to the debate on race, and what does it mean for theories on race as a biological construct? This model states that all humans are the same race essentially (African) and it does not matter what color skin we are if the origins all trace back to Africa. The theories of race are only about individuality and social and political classes. At the end of the day everybody is just one race: human. Page Ref: 22 Topic: Questioning Race 8. What is the significance of Neanderthal fossils? How do these differ from other fossils, and how have they contributed to ideas regarding race and racial superiority? Neanderthal fossils are the closest fossils to the human race. They have the closest skull measurements, essentially making them closest to being as smart as humans today. Neanderthals since the 1980’s are considered the end of an evolution for a species that is radically different from modern humans. However, before this determination the Europeans viewed the Neanderthals as an example of racial superiority. Page Ref: 19 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives to the 1980s 9. Where do early ideas about race and race specific characteristics originate? What does this signify about Europeans prior to the development of evolutionary biology and related theories regarding the development of racial differences? They originated from the scientist trying to find proof of races superiority over another one. Europeans were trying to justify racial segregation, denial of rights, and colonial rule. Page Ref: 15-16 Topic: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Origins and the Notion of Race 10. How has the Human Genome Project been used to establish Africa’s place in the story of human origins? What has it revealed, and what does it signify about evolutionary biology and the â€Å"Out of Africa† model? It proved that all human population shares an incredibly close genetic relationship. It also proved that humans lived in Africa longer than any other part of the world.

Are There Black People With Freckles

Are There Black People With Freckles SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips When you think about freckles, what do you think of? Fair-skinned children whose mothers slather sunblock on them? Bright, shocking red hair? Maybe even Pippi Longstocking? As a beauty feature, freckles are commonly associated with fair-skinned people, leading to the question: â€Å"Can black people have freckles?† The answer is yes- there are many black people with freckles, as well as people with other skin tones who have freckles, too. In this article, I’ll break down what causes freckles and who has them. I’ll also provide images of black people with freckles to demonstrate the different skin tones that have freckles. Can Black People Have Freckles? 3 Examples of Freckles on a Black Person Check out these three images to see examples of how freckles look on a black person. What Are Freckles? Freckles, also known as ephelides, are clusters of melanized skin. Freckles have melanocytes (melanin-producing cells) that overproduce melanin granules which change the color of outer skin cells. What does that mean? Basically, freckles are bunched-up clusters of melanin-producing cells. When UV rays hit these bunched-up clusters of cells, they’ll darken in color, changing the pigment of small parts of your skin. Freckles are triggered by sunlight, meaning that they develop as you grow and expose your skin to the sun. Because freckles appear after exposure to sun, many people associate them with sun damage. However, freckles are actually not related to sun damage at all. Freckles can, though, disguise lentigo, or sun spots, which can be a sign of cancer. Regardless of your skin tone and the presence of freckles, you should always protect your skin with a broad spectrum UVA/UVB sunscreen that’s SPF 30 or higher. Not just anyone can have freckles. In order to have freckles, you must have a variation of the MC1R gene. People of all heritages and skin tones can have this genetic mutation. Why Are Freckles More Commonly Associated With Fair Skin? If there are black people with freckles, why are freckles so predominantly associated with people with fair skin? Why aren't there many examples of black people with freckles? The answer lies in genetics. The variation of the MC1R gene that causes freckles is passed down genetically. People of Celtic heritage, who typically have very fair hair and skin, are more likely to have this genetic mutation than other groups. However, people of African, Mediterranean, Asian, and Hispanic descent can also have freckles. The genetic mutation simply isn’t as common in these groups as it is in groups of Celtic descent, so you don't see as many Asian or black people with freckles. Can Freckles Disappear? Just as freckles appear in the light, they can fade in the lack of sun exposure. Many people whose freckles appear during the summer often watch those same freckles fade over the winter. On the other hand, there are plenty of people whose freckles stay year-round after they first appear. Every person’s freckles are slightly different. 4 Tips for Taking Care of Skin with Freckles While freckles aren’t associated with skin damage, they can make you more prone to getting other, malignant types of skin conditions. Follow these four tips to take care of your skin if you have freckles. #1: Always Wear Sunscreen Both fair skinned and black people with freckles (and really everyone) should always wear sunscreen. Look for a broad spectrum UVA/UVB sunscreen that’s SPF 30 or higher. If you’re trying to limit the appearance of freckles, sunscreen will help guard your skin from the UV rays that cause freckles to appear. Sunscreen will also help prevent dangerous skin damage. #2: Visit a Dermatologist If you freckle easily, your skin will also be more prone to skin cancer and sun damage. You should visit a dermatologist at least once a year to receive a skin cancer screening. Some types of skin cancer look like freckles, so it’s important to visit a doctor who can help you tell the difference. #3: Perform Monthly Self-Examinations Just like women should perform monthly breast self exams, people with freckles should perform monthly skin exams. You don’t have to do anything fancy for a skin exam- simply make note of the freckles, moles, and other skin markings you have. The more aware you are of your body, the more likely you are to notice when something has appeared or changed. #4: Exfoliate Exfoliating helps remove dead skin cells and allows for healthy skin turnover. Exfoliating will help remove dead, dull-looking skin and help your other skin care products, like sunscreen and moisturizers, work better. Recap: Can Black People Have Freckles? Freckles are caused by a variation on the MC1R gene- and anyone, with any skin color or heritage, can have them. Freckles are clusters of melanin-producing cells that appear when exposed to UV rays. If you have freckles, it’s important to take good care of your skin by using sunscreen to prevent from sun damage.

Real, Not Monetary Shocks Drive Business Cycles †Business Essay

Real, Not Monetary Shocks Drive Business Cycles – Business Essay Free Online Research Papers Real, Not Monetary Shocks Drive Business Cycles Business Essay A business, or trade cycle, is the term used to describe the tendency for recurring fluctuations in economic activity characterized by alternating periods of upward and downward movements in the aggregate level of output and employment, relative to their long-term trends. The initial concept of business cycles is generally attributed to French physician Clement Juglar, who described the economic cycle in 1860 as ‘a recurring, if not necessarily uniform pattern.’ Since that time, a four-phase scheme has been used to describe fluctuations in business cycles: an upturn ends at an upper turning point (boom), followed by a downturn which leads to a lower turning point (recession) which is, in turn, followed by the next upturn (Fig. 1.1). Theories on the causes of business cycles have considered an array of possible factors yet neither theoretical nor empirical work has conclusively delineated the underlying causes for fluctuations. I intend to expound the theories and assess relevant evidence on behalf of both real and monetary shocks. I turn, I shall also comment on how the two schools of thought are implicitly tied to political po licy and finally offer an answer as to which really drives business cycles. Mainstream macroeconomists view recessions as a case of market failure. There are workers who would like to work but cannot because no one is willing to hire them. Their lack of income creates consumers who would like to spend but who cannot because they do not have the funds to do so. As a result, there are businesses that would like to produce and hire more workers, but cannot because there is not enough demand for final output. The circle is complete, and there is something not working properly. The traditional explanation for this situation was a failure of wages and prices to adjust quickly enough. A change in spending drives the economy away from equilibrium, but sticky wages and/or prices prevent rapid adjustment to a new equilibrium. Real-business cycle theorists reject the above explanation based on the assumption that markets always clear. Hence wages and prices should not be sticky, but should adjust quickly. In essence, the central idea is that technical change is the most important kind of economic disturbance behind business fluctuations. This approach builds on the ideas of Joseph Schumpeter who held that capitalism is characterised by waves of â€Å"creative destruction† in which the continuous introduction of new technologies constantly drives existing firms our of business. When there is a temporary improvement in technology, this temporarily raises productivity. It follows that the real wage is also temporarily higher given that workers are paid their marginal product, which is equal to the real wage. Workers respond to the temporarily high wage rate by deciding to work harder while the real wage is high, and as a consequence, output rises. Suppose that in some weeks you get paid $15 per hour, and in other weeks you only get paid $5 per hour. If one could choose how many hours a week to work, what kind of pattern would be expected? Though some people may choose to work the same in all weeks, most people would work longer in the higher-pay weeks and less in the lower-pay weeks. They will take their leisure in the lower-pay periods, and move their work to the higher pay periods. The real-business cycle suggests that this same pattern holds over longer periods. When there is a technological shock raising real wage, people will work more causing output to surge, and when there is a technological shock lowering real wage, people will withdraw from work, causing output to fall. This pattern is what we observe as booms and recessions. Clearly, real business cycle theory depends heavily on the ability of workers to alter the amount of labour and leisure time they choose at each point in time. This is called the inter-te mporal substitution of labour, and it is one of the most controversial assumptions of real business cycles. Many economists find the real-business cycle theory totally unbelievable. No one can observe the technological shocks that are at the heart of this explanation, and it strikes many as simply ridiculous to argue that the unemployment during a recession is voluntary. However, the evidence for the argument that real shocks drive business cycles may be found in cases of natural and artificial disasters. Natural disasters such as the tsunami in Asia and artificial disasters such as the terrorists attacks on September 11th 2001. The evidence that September 11th caused an immediate and continued downturn in the economy of the United States (and as a direct result the strength of the dollar) is undeniable. Likewise the economic effects on the affected areas in Asia are possibly even more extreme. Entire villages and towns have been entirely destroyed and consequently the economy is defunct. Herein lies the problem of talking about business cycles in general. It is clear from the exampl es above that a business cycle in the developed world means a very different thing to those countries in the early stages of economic advancement. However, both cases support the argument that real shocks are the primary force behind business cycles. In terms of policy implications real business cycle theorists are inclined to deny the powers of governments, through monetary and fiscal policy, to control the rate of economic growth. In contrast those who believe that monetary shocks drive business cycles argue that it is indeed the government (or central bank) policies that can control the rate of growth. The target of monetary policy may be the achievement of a desired level or rate of growth in real activity, the price level, the exchange rate, or the balance of payments. In both the UK and the US policies have included setting the interest rate charged by the central bank, sales or purchases of securities to control the money supply, and changes in the required reserve ratios of banks and other financial institutions. Monetarism was drafted as a ‘revolution’ against the then orthodox Keynesian theory. In the early and mid-1960s, monetarism and Keynesian economics were regarded as distinct and probably irreconcilable explanations for business cycles. Monetarists distinguish themselves from other economists by stressing the existence of a stable money-demand function. One implication is that the best way to stabilise the economy is to stabilise the rate of growth of the money supply at a low level. Assuming that output is determined exogenously (by the microeconomic supply decisions of households and businesses) so that Q can be taken as given, then the definition of velocity implies: P = (M .V)/Q If V is fairly stable, and Q is exogenous, the equation implies that changes in M translate into changes in the price level. Thus, monetarists stress that changes in M are the key to controlling the price level. They hold that money should be allowed to rise at a constant rate per year. Thus, controlling inflation becomes merely a problem of controlling M. Monetarism is much more sceptical than Keynesian economics with regard to the need for, and efficacy of, stabilization policies. In order not to distort price signals, the government should make the supply of money stable and predictable. An independent central bank is helpful in achieving this goal. Friedman and Schwartz brought money back to the fore with the publication of their Monetary History of the U.S (1963). In this influential book, Friedman and Schwartz show that money and real aggregate production move together closely over the business cycle. Laidler’s model shows that the interplay between a Friedmanian accelerationist Phillips curve and the quantity equation is sufficient to generate business cycles in R. Frisch’s sense. According to Friedman and Schwartz much the same mechanisms potentially give rise to business cycles in the open economy with international trade in commodities and securities. They also posit that incorporating structural unemployment into the monetarist model does not affect the main results. The supply side determines average aggregate output and the interplay between supply and demand determines the fluctuations around this average level. The theoretical positions of these two schools of thought converged to a widely shared macroeconomic consensus in the early 1970s that the average output level is determined by supply-side factors, while the demand side is an important determinant of the fluctuations of aggregate production about the average level. The issue of whether monetary policy can be used to control business cycles is at the heart of the economic debate with regard to the European Monetary Union (EMU). Many believe that Gordon Brown’s view that Britain would be adversely affected economically by joining the Euro is the single largest factor as to why Britain remains a sovereign state. The argument revolves around the fact that monetary policy, if it is to have a controlling effect on an economy, is most effective when it is used to counteract localised shocks. It follows then that a single monetary policy for all EMU nations (with well-documented fundamental differences in the foundations of their respective economic status) would be less effective than implementing one specific to the UK. In conclusion, and I think most modern macroeconomists would agree, that business cycles are clearly influenced by both real and monetary shocks. As I have shown, real shocks, can offer a more identifiable force behind business cycles and yet it could simultaneously be argued that the government’s monetary policy is the more constant, driving, factor. I believe that the government should take an active role in moderating the business cycle through stabilization policies. This is because, as research has shown, short-term business cycle fluctuations may have long-term effects on the economy. The persistence of long-term unemployment in European economies is a good example of how short-term fluctuations in output and employment can create serious long-term problems for the economy. I am inclined to agree with Boehm who states ‘there are both endogenous and exogenous causes of cycles and concludes that, while each cycle is distinct, there are also common elements to all b usiness cycles.’ The implication is that any theory suggesting random elements as the main source of cycles is suspect. Since new classical theory postulates that cycles are caused by random monetary shocks and real business cycle theory places blame on technology shocks, both theories fail by Boehms criteria. Boehm concludes that an eclectic theory of the cycle is necessary and that continual monitoring is needed for stabilisation purposes. Bibliography The American Business Cycle, R. J. Gordon, 1986 Macroeconomics in the Global Economy, Sachs-Lauren, 1993 Business Cycle Indicators, Karl Heinrich Oppenlander, 2001 Cause and Control of the Business Cycle, E.C. Harwood, 1975 Business Cycles, James Arthur Etey, 1992 The Economics of Seasonal Cycles, Miron, 1998 The Oxford Dictionary of Economics, 2004 UK Monetary Policy in the Modern Economy, A. T. Milner, 2002 Research Papers on Real, Not Monetary Shocks Drive Business Cycles - Business EssayResearch Process Part OneTwilight of the UAWOpen Architechture a white paperThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfPETSTEL analysis of IndiaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductDefinition of Export Quotas

Gambling and crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Gambling and crime - Essay Example The gambling industry entices people to try gambling in order to get them hooked and become addicted and the industry knows full well the consequences of an addiction. A former lawyer of John Ascuagas â€Å"Nugget† embezzled $3 million for his gambling habit and in another case, the accountant of a doctors clinic stole some $2.3 million from her employer to feed her habit of buying lottery tickets, as much $6,000 per day. She had pleaded guilty and was charged with a second-degree grand larceny. As it becomes an addiction, some decent, reasonable, respectable and rational people are really tempted to steal money and also commit other far more serious crimes like murder for their gambling addictions. Gambling involves taking the odds or probability of a certain outcome to be occurring. Gambling can take many forms such as horse racing, card games, table games, slot machines, dog racing, sports betting (boxing, basketball, soccer, etc.) and even on the Internet. Some forms of gambling are considered tame or mild in nature such as sweepstakes, lotteries and bingo games because the bet amounts are not very large although prizes can get very big. There are warning signs of a gambling addiction and people should be made aware of them. Planning a future action is a healthy attitude. This is the same principle involved when businessmen and investors go into business in order to earn money. This speculative attitude generates investments and jobs such as in the form of insurance contracts (fire, auto, marine, flood, etc.), life annuities and the modern and very complex forms of contracts like financial derivatives and stock options. The futures market in agricultural commodities is a very good example of gambling based on speculation but minimizing the risks involved. However, this paper will explore and discuss the troubling issues associated with types of gambling in the strict sense of the word. This paper looks at the problems generated by the uncontrolled urge

Project motorcycles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project motorcycles - Essay Example This structure is advantageous because there is a clear chain of command, autonomy of departments, quick decision making and sharing of skills. The following model indicates the functional structure that is intended to be applied in the developing of the larger touring class motorcycle. This implies that, a project can be completed by a specific functional group equipped with the necessary skills. The process of developing a larger class touring motorcycle involves two main stages. They include manufacturing and quality control. At the manufacturing department, the necessary materials are assembled to completion and at the quality control department; the quality control inspectors conduct a visual inspection (Cooke, Tate, & Cooke, 2011). The functional groups form reservoirs of knowledge in the areas of specialization. The groups’ efficiency is attributed to well-structured communication processes, which eases decision-making. The process of developing motors larger than 1100cc intended for long distance and a proposed global market target of males aged 35-60 years requires systematic functional units to ensure that, the company does not make losses during the changeover (Cooke, Tate, & Cooke, 2011). The following are the primary raw material essential for the development of a motorcycle. The process of manufacturing should start at the weld department. This process should be aided by the computer-controlled fabrication of frame lofty strength materials (Henshaw, 2012). The components are shaped into hollow tubular metal shells. The diverse sections are jointly welded. The process engrosses manual, automatic and computerized equipment. The plastic and metal components are painted in the booths of the paint department. The process is called powder coating. It is done by a pressurized system, which disperses the paint evenly (Henshaw, 2012). Installation of other parts such as brakes, foot pegs, seats, lights, radios, wheels and many others

The Welfare Principle in the UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Welfare Principle in the UK - Essay Example In which, the rights, powers, duties, responsibilities and authority of the parents are provided concerning their children. In addition to that, it enables the court to hear and make decisions about the welfare of the child. The Adoption and Children Act 2002 changed the law pertaining to the parental responsibility.2 For children born on or after 1 December 2003 [England and Wales], 4 May 2006 [Scotland] and15 April 2002 [Northern Ireland], both biological parents remain owners of the parental responsibility if they are registered on the birth certificate of the child [whether or not the parents are married]. Contact Order definition According to section 8(1) of the Children Act, a contact order means an order requiring the person with whom a child lives or is to live, to allow the child to visit or stay with the person named in the order, or for that person and the child otherwise to have contact with each other.3 However, in case of clash between the interests of the parents and t he interests of children, the interests of the child will be preferred as was stated by the Court of Appeal in Re P (Contact: Supervision) [1996] 2FLR 314 at p.328. What are the interests of a child that the court is going to protect? For example, the child does not have only physical needs and educational needs, but also requires emotional support in order to grow naturally and complete the cycle of mental and physical growth. If parents are only able to satisfy the physical and education needs, but not the emotional one, it would not be easy for the court to serve and protect the interests of the child due to a clash between the different interests. Even in this case, if the court grants the contact order, the court compromises on the emotional needs of the child. On the other hand, if the court does not entertain the contact order request from the parents, the court again fails to properly serve the interests of the child. In order to ascertain the interests of the parents and th e interests of the child, the court needs to consider the contact order factors that assist whether contact order should be made or not. They include: Above all, the court has to consider what they believe to be in the best interests of child and the welfare of the child remains the main priority. In this regard, the feelings and wishes of the child as far as can be ascertained and they must be considered in the light of the child’s mental level and understanding: There is no specific age bracket provided to ascertain the mental level of a child. If the child faces a very specific mental disorder and the doctors remain unsuccessful to highlight the impact of the mental disorder on the child’s main mind function, under that situation, the age consideration may become irrelevant. Even the court decision to issue a contact order will not be able to serve the main objective of the child welfare. The court is required to take into account the child’s emotional, physi cal and educational needs as well: For example, if parents want to nurture their child and they are financially in a position to fulfil the physical and educational needs of the child, but they are unable to satisfy the emotional needs of the child. There are no particular emotional needs mentioned in the Children Act 1989 that must be satisfied before granting a contact order. In addition, there are different types of emotions and

Higher Quality Input Phrase To Driven Reverse Dictionary

Higher Quality Input Phrase To Driven Reverse Dictionary Implementing a Higher Quality Input Phrase To Driven Reverse Dictionary E.Kamalanathan  and C.Sunitha Ram ABSTRACT Implementing a higher quality input phrase to driven reverse wordbook. In contrast to a conventional forward wordbook, that map from word to their definitions, a reverse wordbook takes a user input phrase describing the specified construct, and returns a group of candidate words that satisfy the input phrase. This work has important application not just for the final public, notably those that work closely with words, however conjointly within the general field of abstract search. The current a group of algorithms and therefore the results of a group of experiments showing the retrieval accuracy and therefore the runtime latency performance is implementation. The experimental results show that, approach will offer important enhancements in performance scale while not sacrificing the standard of the result. Experiments scrutiny the standard of approach to it of presently on the market reverse dictionaries show that the approach will offer considerably higher quality over either of the opposite presently on the market implementations. Index Terms : Dictionaries, thesauruses, search process, web-based services. . INTRODUCTION A Report work on creating a reverse dictionary, As against a regular (forward) wordbook that maps words to their definitions, a WD performs the converse mapping, i.e., given a phrase describing the required conception, it provides words whose definitions match the entered definition phrase. It’s relevant to language understanding. The approach has a number of the characteristics expected from a strong language understanding system. Firstly, learning solely depends on unannoted text information, which is abundant and contain the individual bias of an observer. Secondly, the approach is predicated on all-purpose resources (Brill’s PoS Tagger, WordNet [7]), and also the performance is studied below negative (hence additional realistic) assumptions, e.g., that the tagger is trained on a regular dataset with doubtless totally different properties from the documents to be clustered. Similarly, the approach studies the potential advantages of victimization all potential senses (and hypernyms) from WordNet, in an endeavor to defer (or avoid altogether) the necessity for Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD), and also the connected pitfalls of a WSD tool which can be biased towards a particular domain or language vogue BACKGROUND WORK Natural Language Processing: Natural Language Processing (NLP) [6] is a large field which encompasses a lot of categories that are related to this thesis. Specifically NLP is the process of computationally extracting meaningful information of natural languages. In other words: the ability for a computer to interpret the expressive power of natural language. Subcategories of NLP which are relevant for this thesis are presented below. WordNet: WordNet [7], [2]is a large lexical database containing the words of the English language. It resembles the traits of a thesaurus in that it structures words that have similar meaning together. WordNet is something more, since it also specifies different connections for each of the senses of a given word. These connections place words that are semantically related close to one another in a network. WordNet also displays some quality of a dictionary, since it describes the definition of words and their corresponding part-of-speech. Synonym relation is the main connection between words, which means that words which are conceptually equivalent, and thus interchangeable in most contexts, are grouped together. These groupings are called synsets and consist of a definition and relations to other synsets. A word can be part of more than one synset, since it can bear more than one meaning. WordNet has a total of 117 000 synsets, which are linked together. Not all synsets have a distinct path to another synset. This is the case, since the data structure in WordNet is split into four different groups; nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs (since they follow different rules of grammar). Thus it is not possible to compare words in different groups, unless all groups are linked together with a common entity. There are some exceptions which links synsets cross part-of-speech in WordNet, but these are rare. It is not always possible to find a relation between two words within a group, since each group are made of different ba se types. The relations that connect the synsets within the different groups vary based on the type of the synsets. Application Programming Interface Several Application Programming Interfaces (API) exists for WordNet. These allow easy access to the platform and often additional functionality. As an example of this the Java WordNet Library [8] (JWNL) can be mentioned. This allows for access to the WordNet Library files. PoS Tagging PoS tags[8] are assigned to the corpus using Brill’s PoS tagger. As PoS tagging require the words to be in their original order this is done before any other modifications on the corpora. Part-of-speech (POS) tagging is the field which is concerned with analysing a text and assigning different grammatical roles to each entity. These roles are based on the definition of the particular word and the context in which it is written. Words that are in close proximity of each other often affect and assign meaning to each other. The POS taggers job is to assign grammatical roles such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. based upon these relations. The tagging of POS is important in information retrieval in general text processing. This is the case since natural languages contain a lot of ambiguity, which can make distinguishing words/terms difficult. There are two main schools when tagging POS. These are rule-based and stochastic. Examples of the two are Brill’s tagger and Stanford POS tagger, respectively. Rule-based taggers work by applying the most used POS for a given word. Predefined/lexical rules are then applied to the structure for error analysis. Errors are corrected until a satisfying threshold is reached. Stochastic taggers use a trained corpus to determine the POS of a given word. Stopword Removal Stopwords, i.e. words thought not to convey any meaning, are removed from the text. The approach taken in this work does not compile a static list of stopwords, as usually done. Instead PoS information is browbeaten and all tokens that are not nouns, verbs or adjectives are removed. Stop words are words which occur often in text and speech. They do not tell much about the content they are wrapped in, but helps humans understand and interpret the residue of the content. These terms are so generic that they do not mean anything by themselves. In the context of text processing they are basically just empty words, which only takes up space, increases computational time and affects the similarity measure in a way which is not relevant. This can result in false positives. Table: 1 List of Stop words This class includes only one method; which runs through a list of words and removes all occurrences of words specified in a file. A text file, which specifies the stop words, is loaded into the program. This file is called â€Å"stop-words.txt† and is located at the home directory of the program. The text file can be edited such that it only contains the desired stop words. A representation of the stop words used in the text file can be found in table 1. After the list of stop words has been loaded, it is compared to the words in the given list. If a match is found the given word in the list is removed. A list, exposed from stop words, is then returned. Stemming Words with the same meaning appear in various morphological forms. To capture their similarity they are normalised into a common root-form, the stem. The morphology function provided with WordNet is used for stemming, because it only yields stems that are contained in the WordNet dictionary. This class contains five methods; one for converting a list of words into a string, two for stemming a list of words and two for handling the access to WordNet through the JWNL API[8]. The first method listToString() takes an ArrayList of strings and concatenate these into a string representation. The second method stringStemmer() takes an ArrayList of strings and iterates through each word, stemming these by calling the private method wordStemmer(). This method checks if the JWNL API has been loaded and starts stemming by looking up the lemma of a word in WordNet. Before this is done, each word starting with an uppercase letter is checked to see if it can be used as a noun. If the word can be used as a noun, it does not qualify for stemming and is returned in its original form. The lemma lookup is done by using a morphological processor, which is provided by WordNet. This morphs the word into its lemma, after which the word is checked for a match in the database of WordNet. This is done by running through all the specified POS databases defined in WordNet. If a match is found, the lemma of the word is returned, otherwise the original word is simply returned. Lastly, the methods allowing access to WordNet initializes the JWNL API and shuts it down, respectively. The initializer() method gets an instance of the dictionary files and loads the morphological processor. If this method is not called, the program is not able to access the WordNet files. The method close() closes the dictionary files and shuts down the JWNL API. This method is not used in the program, since it would not make sense to uninstall the dictionary once it has been installed. It would only increase the total execution time. It has been implemented for good measure, should it be needed. Stemming[5] is the process of reducing an inflected or derived word to its base form. In other words all morphological deviations of a word are reduced to the same form, which makes comparison easier. The stemmed word is not necessarily returned to its morphological root, but a mutual stem. The morphological deviations of a word have different suffixes, but in essence describe the same. These different variants can therefore be merged into a distinct representative form. Thus a comparison of stemmed words turns up a higher relation for equivalent words. In addition storing becomes more effective. Words like observes, observed, observation, observationally should all be reduced to a mutual stem such as observe. PROPOSED SYSTEM Reverse dictionaries approach can provide significantly higher quality. The proposed a set of methods for building and querying a reverse dictionary. Reverse dictionary system is based on the notion that a phrase that conceptually describes a word should resemble the word’s actual definition, if not matching the exact words, then at least conceptually similar. Consider, for example, the following concept phrase: â€Å"talks a lot, but without much substance.† Based on such a phrase, a reverse dictionary should return words such as â€Å"gabby,† â€Å"chatty,† and â€Å"garrulous.† Forward mapping (standard dictionary): Intuitively, a forward mapping designates all the senses for a particular word phrase. This is expressed in terms of a forward map set (FMS). The FMS of a (word) phrase W, designated by F(W) is the set of (sense) phrases {S1, S2, . . . Sn } such that for each Sj à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ F(Wi), (Wi à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   Sj) à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ D. For example, suppose that the term â€Å"jovial† is associated with various meanings, including â€Å"showing high-spirited merriment† and â€Å"pertaining† to the god Jove, or Jupiter.† Here, F (jovial) would contain both of these phrases. Reverse mapping (reverse dictionary): Reverse mapping applies to terms and is expressed as a reverse map set (RMS). The RMS of t, denoted R(t), is a set of phrases { P1, P2, Pi,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, Pm}, such that à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Pi à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ãƒ ¯Ã†â€™Ã… ½ R(t), t à ¯Ã†â€™Ã… ½ F(Pi). Intuitively, the reverse map set of a term t consists of all the (word) phrases in whose definition t appears. The find candidate words phase consists of two key sub steps: 1) Build the RMS. 2) Query the RMS. A. COMPONENTS The first preprocessing step is to PoS tag the corpus. The PoS tagger relies on the text structure and morphological differences to determine the appropriate part-of-speech. For this reason, if it is required, PoS tagging is the first step to be carried out. After this, stopword removal is performed, followed by stemming. This order is chosen to reduce the amount of words to be stemmed. The stemmed words are then looked up in WordNet and their corresponding synonyms and hypernyms are added to the bag-of-words. Once the document vectors are completed in this way, the frequency of each word across the corpus can be counted and every word occurring less often than the pre specified threshold is pruned. Stemming, stopword removal and pruning all aim to improve clustering quality by removing noise, i.e. meaningless data. They all lead to a reduction in the number of dimensions in the term-space. Weighting is concerned with the estimation of the importance of individual terms. All of these have been used extensively and are considered the baseline for comparison in this work. However, the two techniques under investigation both add data to the representation. a PoS tagging adds syntactic information and WordNet is used to add synonyms and hypernyms. B. BUILDING REVERSE MAPPING SETS The input phrases sentence is split into words and then removes the stop words ( a, be, person, some, someone, too, very, who, the, in, of, and, to) if any appears, and find other words, which is having same meaning from the forward dictionary data sources. Given the large size of dictionaries, creating such mappings on the fly is infeasible. Thus, Procreate these Rs for every relevant term in the dictionary. This is a one time, offline event; once these mappings exist, we can use them for ongoing lookup. Thus, the cost of creating the corpus has no effect on runtime performance. For an input dictionary D, we create R mappings for all terms appearing in the sense phrases (definitions) in D. C. RMS QUERY This module responds to user input phrases. Upon receiving such an input phrase, we query the R indexes already present in the database to find candidate words whose definitions have any similarity to the input phrase. Upon receiving an input phrase U, we process U using a stepwise refinement approach. We start off by extracting the core terms from U, and searching for the candidate words (Ws) whose definitions contain these core terms exactly. (Note that we tune these terms slightly to increase the probability of generating Ws) If this first step does not generate a sufficient number of output Ws, defined by a tuneable input parameter ÃŽ ±, which represents the minimum number of word phrases needed to halt processing and return output. D. CANDIDATE WORD RANKING In this module sorts a set of output Ws in order of decreasing similarity to U, based on the semantic similarity. To build such a ranking, we need to be able to assign a similarity measure for each (S,U) pair, where U is the user input phrase and S is a definition for some W in the candidate word set O. Wn and Palmer’s Conceptual similarity, WUP Similarity between concepts a and b in a hierarchy, Here depth(lso(a,b)) is the global depth of the lowest super ordinate of a and b and len(a,b) is the length of the path between the nodes a and b in the hierarchy SOLUTION ARCHITECTURE We now describe our implementation architecture, with particular attention to design for scalability. The Reverse Dictionary Application (RDA) is a software module that takes a user phrase (U) as input, and returns a set of conceptually related words as output. Figure 1. Architecture of reverse dictionary. The user input phrase, split the word from the input phrase, perform the stemming. Predict every relevant term in the forward dictionary data source. In the generate query. input phrase, minimum and maximum output thresholds as input, then removal of level 1 stop words ( a, be, person, some, someone, too, very, who, the, in, of, and, to) and perform stemming, generate the query.Execute the query find the set of candidate words. Finally sort the result based on the semantic similarity EXPERIMENTAL ENVIRONMENT Our experimental environment consisted of two 2.2 GHz dual-core CPU, 2 GB RAM servers running Windows XP pro and above. On one server, we installed our implementation our algorithms (written in Java). The other server housed is wordnet dictionary data. CONCLUSION We describe the many challenges inherent in building a reverse lexicon, and map drawback to the well-known abstract similarity problem. We tend to propose a collection of strategies for building and querying a reverse lexicon, and describe a collection of experiments that show the standard of our results, similarly because the runtime performance underneath load. Our experimental results show that our approach will give important enhancements in performance scale while not sacrificing answer quality. The higher quality input phrase to driven reverse dictionary. Unlike a traditional forward dictionary, which maps from words to their definitions, a reverse dictionary takes a user input phrase describing the desired concept, it reduce the well-known conceptual similarity problem. The set of methods building a reverse mapping querying a reverse dictionary and it produces the higher quality of results. This approach can provide significant improvements in performance scale without sacrificing solution quality but for larger query it is fairly slow. REFERENCES T. Dao and T. Simpson, â€Å"Measuring Similarity between Sentences,† 2009. http://opensvn.csie.org/WordNetDotNet/trunk/ Projects/ T. Hofmann, â€Å"Probabilistic Latent Semantic Indexing,† SIGIR ’99: Proc. 22nd Ann. Int’l ACM SIGIR Conf. Research and Development in Information Retrieval, pp. 50-57, 1999. D. Lin, â€Å"An Information-Theoretic Definition of Similarity,† Proc .Int’l Conf. Machine Learning, 1998. M. Porter, â€Å"The Porter Stemming Algorithm,†http://tartarus.org/martin/PorterStemmer/ , 2009. G. Miller, C. Fellbaum, R. Tengi, P. Wakefield, and H. Langone, â€Å"Wordnet Lexical Database,† http://wordnet.princeton.edu/wordnet/download/, 2009. P. Resnik, â€Å"Semantic Similarity in a Taxonomy: An Information-Based Measure and Its Application to Problems of Ambiguity in Natural Language,† J. Artificial Intelligence Research, vol. 11, pp. 95- 130, 1999. AUTHORS PROFILE E Kamalanathan is pursuing his Master of Engineering (part time ) from Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SCSVMV University Enathur,

The Politics of Name Changes in India Essay -- Town City

The Politics of Name Changes in India Ever since independence in 1947, many locations in India have changed their names. Much of this resulted from the reorganization of the states on linguistic lines (as opposed to British colonial divisions). However, in the last six years, many major towns and cities have been renamed in ways that affect foreigners more. Among this flood of changes, three stand out. These are the former cities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta, which, together with Delhi, are considered the "mega cities" of India.1 They are the four most populous cities in India, and all but Madras are among the 15 most populous cities in the world.2 As a result, they are important commercial and transit hubs, and are well known outside India. Yet nearly six years later, most non-Indians still have no idea that they are now named Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata. Given the difficulties involved in these changes, one expects compelling justifications for the changes. In each case, these changes have officially been justified on anti-colonialist grounds. However, I will argue that these changes are instead tools for channeling regionalist sentiment in the conflict between the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the centrist Indian National Congress (INC), and various regional parties. Opponents of the INC proposed all these names, but those proposed by the BJP and its nationalist allies have been more divisive. The case of Mumbai was the first major change to happen, and is thus the best known. In 1995, the ruling party in the government of the state of Maharashtra (of which Bombay was capital) announced that Bombay's name would be changed to its Marathi name, Mumbai.3 The casual observer would assume that the name "B... ...ttp://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/52a/076.html - a BBC article about the Kolkata name change * http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/indian_subcontinent/mumbai/history.htm - a travel site with a history of Mumbai. (It connects Bal Thackeray, the leader of the Shiv Sena, to Adolf Hitler!) * http://theory.tifr.res.in/bombay/history/people/language/ - a list of most languages in India spoken by over a million people * http://www.contactsindia.com/tourism/south/tamil_nadu/madras.htm - a site with information about Chennai * www.aapkashahar.com - a tourist site with little or no graphics, demonstrating usage of both old and new names for cities * www.soulkurry.com - a site about women's spirituality in India List of Indian cities that have recently undergone (or may undergo) a name change. (Population figures are from www.citypopulation.de.)

Assess the View on Whether or Not Roles in Relationships

H/W Assess the view that roles and relations among couples are becoming more equal (24 Marks) Numerous sociologists have suggested that a large number of relationships are now becoming more symmetrical in compare to the traditional families looking back 40, 100, 200 years ago. They say that the traditional male and female roles are no longer as they were before, it has all fallen apart, and hence relationships have been becoming more equal. Some sociologists such as Wilmot and Young argue that in symmetrical families, normal domestic duties are most likely to be shared by both parties and they are both very likely to be working.Thus it all undoes the tradition of the past in which a woman would care for the children and the home, and the man being the ‘breadwinner’ would head out and work. Some sociologists also argue that the decision making is no longer only within the man’s hand as it once was, but also in the woman’s hands, the symmetrical family has an equal partnership in decision making. All this evidence leads some sociologists to view the roles and relations of couples to have been becoming somewhat more equal in compare to the past.On the other hand, some sociologists such as Morgan(1996) argue that women now take part in an act known as the ‘Triple Shift’, this is when women go out and work, but then also do domestic work when at home and give emotional support to partner and children. As a result, many feminists would argue that the roles and relations of couples are not equal, but actually unfair, the woman is doing so much more than her partner. This views result in some sociologist believing that roles and relations have changed in compare to the past, but in a path towards the woman doing more work than the man, making her the ‘breadwinner’.In conclusion, many sociologists believe that the roles and relations of couples have been becoming more equal, but there are some who still view it to not being equal at all, and some even arguing that women are doing more work than the men. From this evidence it is clear to say that it is not clear whether or not roles and relations are becoming more ‘equal’, but many sociologists argue that there has been a big change in compare to the past traditions, but whether or not it’s towards the path of the ‘more equal’ is still being argued by many. Siad Mohamed Siyad

Mate Selection Theories essays

Mate Selection Theories essays To describe men and women's differential preferences in mate selection, I am going to use the following theories: 1) sexual selection theory, 2) parental investment theory, and 3) social learning theory, and 4) sexual strategies theory. All of these theories have been used to explain why men and women have differential preferences in mate selections. In the evolutionary approach, biological fitness is defined as reproductive success. Therefore, understanding particular behavioral sex differences is of great interest to evolutionists. Reproduction is central to the evolutionary process and no domain is closer to reproduction than sexuality. Darwin (58) adopted phrase "survival of the fittest" to summarize the process of natural selection, but this choice was unfortunate. Survival is certainly critical. Many adaptations of organisms exist because they successfully overcame the forces that impeded survival, such examples are parasites, diseases, food shortages, predators, and Darwin (67) also fashioned the use of term what he believed to be a second evolutionary process, which he called sexual selection. According to sexual selection theory, characteristics that give organisms an advantage in the competition for mates can also evolve. Sexual selection can operate through two processes. The first is intrasexual or same-sex competition. If members of one sex compete with one another, and the victors of these competitions gain preferential sexual access to mates, then these useful qualities lead to success in same-sex competitions will be selected and can evolve over time. These might include athletic ability, social skills to enlist allies, or even a sense of humor that deters a rival. The key point is that whatever qualities lead to success in same-sex competitions can evolve because of the reproductive advantage that accrues to the victor The second component...

Dictatorship essays

Dictatorship essays In modern times, no dictator can take total power by force alone. In order to gain support, they must offer something beneficial to the people. Unfortunately what is thought to be beneficial can be extremely harmful and cruel. Three specific dictators during the World War II period were Mussolini, Hitler, and Stalin. Joseph Stalin was the successor of Lenin after his death. He had only one goal and that was to finish what Lenin had started. Basically that was to build a classless society in which the means of production were in the hands of the people. After Stalin established power, he developed new goals to make the Soviet Union a leader in industry. He wanted to get rid of Russias backwardness. For this reason Stalin proposed several five year plans. These plans were aimed at improving industry and economic growth. He developed a command economy, which meant government made all economic decisions. Under Stalin, the government controlled all businesses. Stalin also took agriculture under control of the government. He forced people to give up their privately owned land and live on government-owned farms or on large farms that were owned and operated by groups, also known as collectives. The state set all prices and controlled access to farm supplies. (Comptons Encyclopedia, 1990, Joseph Sta lin S570) On July 29, 1921, Adolf Hitler was introduced as Fuehrer of the Nazi Party. Fuehrer basically meant leader. By November 1923, the Nazis held approximately 55,000 followers and were the biggest and most powerful in Germany. The Nazi Party demanded action of Hitler. Hitler knew that he would lose his support if he didnt do something fast. So he and his party developed a plan to kidnap the leaders of the Bavarian government and force to accept Hitler as their leader. On November 9th, 1923 Hitler and his Nazis went to Munich and tried to take it over. At this point they were not powerful enough to ...

Near Shoring Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Near Shoring - Assignment Example This is because near shoring allow businesses to operate near the home country (Shamis, Green, Sorensen t al, 2005). Near shoring allows businesses to conduct their activities in regions with the same time zones. This implies that through this business strategy, it is easier for a business to control all its operations immediately. It also makes the communication process easier. This enables them to coordinate their operations easily and faster. It is difficult for organizations to conducts the same projects in different time zones. In order to achieve the goal of the company, workers in a region with a different time zone have to sacrifice by working at night. Working late in the night may reduce the productivity of workers (McGrath, 2014). Companies that practice near shoring also experience less legal issues compared to those that engage in outsourcing. Outsourcing makes a company to incur huge immigration costs and other costs associated with government regulations. However, in near shoring companies have to only deal with neighboring countries which have less immigration and legal issues. Near shoring also enables a company to enjoy geographical proximity benefits. For instance, it is easier for a company to interact with its customers if they can easily be reached. The situation helps in increasing their

Kinship among South Indian Communities Literature review

Kinship among South Indian Communities - Literature review Example Kinship among South Indian communities has been indispensable and the main form of social organization (caste system). The caste system was a closed hereditary group to which a person belonged strictly by birth. At one point, there were relationships based on endogamous marriage between two people from the same caste. Kinship is also concerned about the productive anxiety of relations of distinction and sameness, the main aspects being the ties that separate or bind. In a fishing village, ‘the Marianad’ what matters is the relations between siblings. The children of the same father and mother, siblings are similar apart from their gender. The strongest differentiation is made between siblings of different gender, a difference that has a great effect in the following generation (Busby 2000; 1995). Therefore, among the â€Å"Marianads† sisters are viewed to be identical in a manner that brother and sister cannot be. Sisters in this tribe, live closely, they are spot ted with each other baby either carrying or feeding it. Contrary, brothers are different in that they move to their wife’s houses in distinct villages, although they view their brother’s children as their own, and they often refer to them as their daughters or sons. The word Dravidian refers to a family dialect mainly spoken in South India. The Dravidian family is different in both origin and structure from the Anglo-Aryan family located in North India. People from South India classify kin based on the difference in sex, the difference in age, the difference in generation, and difference of kin identical with union relationship. This system exemplifies a sociological theory of marriage, and it justifies the issue of someone marrying a cross-cousin (Clark-Deces 2011; Bourdieu 1997). The Marianad people do not have the separate terminologies for the younger and elder sibling, uncles, and aunts. They also do not differentiate between kin identified to ego’s parents via same-sex association (parallel kin) and kin identified to ego’s parents via opposite se-associations. Writers such as Dumont try to suggest the differentiation between the cross and parallel kin in comprehending marriage choices and decisions in South India (Dumont 2006). The children of parents’ same or similar sex siblings (the fathers-in-law and mothers-in-law) are absorbed to the position of elder or young siblings, with whom sexual intimacy, marriage and sexual activities are prohibited. On the other hand, the children of parents’ cross-sex siblings (fathers-in-law and mothers-in-law) are absorbed to the position of spouses or wives with whom marriage is accepted or permitted in that in some castes in south India, it is preferred and prescribed. It is significant to note that these terms recommend separation between relatives (in-laws) and kin, which is not the same as our cultural differentiation between relatives by marriage and blood relatives.

Job Order Costing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Job Order Costing - Essay Example Job order costing is applicable to job order work in factories, workshops, and repair shops, as well as to work by builder, construction, engineers, and printers. It is a highly useful procedure, and allows for these various different occupations to do their work efficiently and at the costs that were predetermined to go hand in hand with each job. In job order costing, the key is that the work is done to the customer's specifications. As a result, each job tends to be different in nature. Even if the job may seem to be exactly the same at first, often a customer will want a worker to do something different than what was originally thought to be done. For example, â€Å"job order costing is used for construction projects, government contracts, shipbuilding, automobile repair, job printing, textbooks, toys, wood furniture, office machines, caskets, machine tools, and luggage. Accumulating the cost of professional services (e.g., lawyers, doctors and CPA's), also fall into this category† (MAAW, â€Å"What Is a Cost Accounting System?†). Job Order Costing is used by companies where products or services are identifiable by individual units or batches—auto repair, tax return preparation, case in an attorney’s office, ship construction, etc. The costs attributable to a particular job are assigned directly to it. Difference between Job order Costing and Process Costing: "In Job Order Costing, Unit Cost computed by job. Many jobs are worked during the period. Costs are accumulated by individual jobs. Costs are traced and applied to individual jobs in Job order cost system. In Process Costing, Costs are accumulated by departments. Unit costs are computed by department. A single product is produced for a long period of time Costs are traced and applied to departments in a Process Cost system." (McGraw-Hill/Irwin, Chapter4, "Systems Design: Process Costing") Primary Objective in Job order Costing: When a job produces a specific quantity for inventory, job order costing permits the computation of a unit cost for inventory costing purposes. When jobs are performed on the basis of customer specifications, job order costing permits the computation of a profit or loss on each order. Since costs are revealed as an order goes through production, these costs may be compared with estimates which were made when an order was taken. Job order costing thereby provides opportunities for controlling costs. It allows the person to help try to keep costs as stable as they can, yet still find a way to make a profit. This ability helps keep both the worker and customer happy, and helps promote a better relationship between the contractor or professional and the person who is paying for the work. This can also help keep costs low, because the customer does not need to pay for services they do not need, even if the professional is capable of doing them. This way, the customer only needs to pay fo r exactly what they need from the professional. When job order or process cost methods are used, costs must be accumulated for control purposes according to the unit in which the product cost is to be stated. For example, Coal is measured by the ton, chemicals by the gallon, and lumber by board feet. Products, such as machines, automobiles and shoes are measured either by the individual unit or by a multiple

The Industrial Revolution Essay Example for Free

The Industrial Revolution Essay The Industrial Revolution (1750-1914) has been one of the most dramatic and far reaching events the history of mankind. It brought about a significant change, replacing the worker based environment with one that was machine led, bringing with it the start of mass production. As Peter Sterns (1998) observed, â€Å"Few aspects of human life escaped serious transformation over the course of the industrial revolution. † The revolution did slow down between 1815-1914. The probable cause of this was the lack of scientific research to back up developments, something that became more prevalent at a later date. At the time of slow growth it was know that things did or did not work, but there was little scientific research from which to understand the reasoning behind the workings, thus development was slow. Like all things in life the Industrial Revolution brought with it both benefits and problems. Two of the most significant benefits were experienced in Travel and energy. With the advent of the revolution and the construction of railways and canals for transporting goods, constructors soon saw the advantages of producing passenger bearing ships and railways. These opened up the world for citizens of all nations. However, possibly one of the greatest benefits of the revolution was the development and harnessing of energy for use in the home, workplace and all forms of transport. Some of the drawbacks and problems related to the Industrial Revolution are only being felt in modern times. For example, the overuse of fossil fuels. At the time of the revolution little thought was given to whether fossil fuels were a finite or infinite resource. It has proved to be the former and today we are facing a future of limited resources. The other major problem is emissions and their affect on the environment. The advent of Global warming has been the price of the Revolution References Sterns, Peter N. (1998) The Industrial Revolution in World History, rev. ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998 Teich, Mikulas and Porter, Roy eds. (1996) The Industrial Revolution in National Context: Europe and the USA. Cambridge University Press. Wikipedia contributors. (Last Revised 11 July 2006) Industrial Revolution. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12 July 2006 from http://en. wikipedia. org/w/index. php? title=Industrial_Revolutionoldid=63218352

Discuss The Concepts Of Health

Discuss The Concepts Of Health This assignment is a reflection of team work in the first enquiry. This assignment is going to discuss the concepts of health, my beliefs about health and illness, and how the unit may have altered my views on health. Health as a concepts means different to different people. Some believe health as a state of being free from disease but some believe that this definition is limited. It is so hard to define health. There is no any universal definition of health (Taylor, 2008- p5frog). So health is a dynamic concepts and complex whose definition varies with the context in which the term is used. There are various prospective to understand health. Health can be understood on biological approach, biomedical approach, behavioural approach, spiritual approach, health education approach, public health approach and many more. Biological approach explores the role of genes. Biomedical approach looks health and illness in terms of pathology of individual. Behavioural approach promotion of health that focus on risk factors and lifestyle behaviour. Public health approach stress on reducing disease prevalence rate and prevention of non-communicable disease (Keleher and MacDougall, 2008- p5 cactus). However, heal th can be culturally understood differently to Indigenous Australian and differently to western countries and non- western countries. For instance, Indigenous believe that notion of health and well-being related to family, community and connectedness to traditional land. They rather ignore individual as a separate entity (Taylor, 2008- p6frog). According to Keleher and MacDougall (2008), understanding health is built upon broad notions of health that recognise the range of social, economical, and environmental factors that contribute to health (p. 6-7 cactus). It seems that people are the focal point to derive the proper concepts of health. Keleher and MacDougall (2008-p6 cactus) argue that peoples prospective is the major steps to understand the health. Many studies show that health is related to state of wellbeing and illness. Western cultural countries like Australia also believe that health is the absence of diseases or pathogens in an individual (Taylor, 2008 p 10frog). Different people think health in different ways. Sandra Taylor (200 8 p6 frog) argues that meaning of health is influenced by socio-cultural factors like gender, age, ethnicity and also culture. Number of studies show that men and women have different ratio to seek health information. Sandra Taylor claims that female are proactive than man to seek health information (p.6). Beside this demography is a consistent factor influencing health of individual. Sandra Taylor argues that people living in rural area associate health and wellbeing as more productive, experienced better health care and able to get health services in time (P-7). I am from very remote and isolated town. I have experienced the important of health. I believe that health is a wealth that an individual earn in life. Without the sound health it is hard to perform life sustaining activities like job, physical activities and much more other things. Socio-Culture affects the beliefs of people. There are strong religious thoughts and practice to cure illness and analyse heath issues. I born in Hindu family and being a Hindu family, one has different ways to treat the disease or illness. People believed that illness use to be due to wrong work done upon spirit. There are number of places in Asia where still people believe on god of spirit for the family and community welfare. God or goddess was worship when a person gets sick. Only few people living in and around the town areas could get heath measures. But many people passed away without seeing a single hospital bed. Though, people used to take patients to hospital, at the last hours only after a person with supernormal skills give-up, and the patients die before reaching to the hospital. So, in this contexts, health meant different to those lived with me and to the others lived in and around the town. This was the understanding of health when I was in Bhutan and also in Refugee camp in Nepal. It has been claimed that; All of these variables have an impact on patients health care usage. General practitioners need to be aware of the individualism of their patients, and recognise that predisposing culture and beliefs may influence the management of patients in general practice (Ten Wett, 1998. p 773). I believe health is also influences by behaviour also. Cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, lack of physical exercise and many other day to day activities could accelerate the health problems. Health studies show that lung cancer is the effect of smoking (Taylor, 2010), asthma cause by smoking and environmental pollutant (Dawbin and Roger, 2008), diabetes type-2, obesity, are cause by the lack of physical activities, food habit, and junk food consumption. All the above mentioned causes are practiced first and felt in the trouble with diseases and illness. People could change this behaviour and standardised their lifestyle if they really think about it. For instance, smoking behaviour could be reduced and physical activities could be increased to avoid asthma or lung cancer. Financial condition influences the heath. For instance, to receive appropriate health services or medications, a person had to have a good amount in hand. It still exists in many parts of the world. I have had an experience of visiting traditional herbalist when I was sick in Bhutan instead of treatment in hospital. It was free in my country because of big forest where we get herbs. It was hard to get General Practitioner (GP) and consult about the issues surgical operation and organ transplantation in those places. One had to keep whole land in mortgage to visit doctor in India or Bangladesh. Illness is the condition of health. Richard; Cumming, Robert; Woodward, Alistair and Black, Megan [2010]. Passive smoking and lung cancer: a cumulative meta-analysis. [Online]. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, v.25, no.3, June 2001: 203-211. Retrieved on 24 Apr10 from http://0-search.informit.com.au.alpha2.latrobe.edu.au/fullText;dn=200111944;res=APAFT> ISSN: 1326-0200. Dawbin, D., Rogers, A.(2008). Age Care in Australia; Common Health Conditions, pp 147. Press: Ligare Pty., Riverwood NSW2210 Ten, V., Wett, L. (2010). Caring for the Chinese patient in general practice. Australian Family Physician. Australian Family Physician v.27 no.9 Sept 1998: 773-775. Retrieved on April 24, 2010 from http://0-search.informit.com.au.alpha2.latrobe.edu.au/search;rs=4;rec=1;action=showCompleteRec MY Thoughts This is my reflective thoughts on health issues. This reflection is based on the learning outcome that I have achieved and done oral and written presentation in the first enquiry. This reflection will help me to understand the concepts of health and strategies used in treating different diseases and viewed through different perspectives by individuals and social responses. Concepts of human health have broad meanings and concepts. People have different thoughts and different connotation for health. Some believe health as a state of being free from any disease. For some health means having balance and stability in their lifestyle, for others it could be their capability in carrying out their responsibilities and also to remain fit and healthy (Taylor, 2008, p5). According to World Health Organisation (WHO, 1974) health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. However, this definition is criticised by many people due to its subjective nature and the problems in the definition of health. According to Sian Keane, health professionals must understand the concept of health from the perspective view of people with disabilities. She argues that health professionals must not focus on the narrow clinical aspects of illness and disability; rather it is best to accept these indivi duals as fully fit and capable of health within the context of their disability. She further says that health professionals often overlook the proper management and promotion of health for people with disability. They have wrong perceptions about their specific needs and their treatments. In fact, health promotion for people with disability is the same as appropriate with non-disable people (Keane, Disability; A guide for Health Professionals, (1996, p320). As such the concept of health is dynamic and complex whose definition varies with the context in which the term is used. In fact, the concept of health is rooted in the unique individual, family, social, cultural and geographical contexts in which the term is used; as such, it is said to be socially and culturally constructed (Taylor, p5). Culture and ethnic background plays an important role in influencing concepts in understanding health, health related issues, illness, their beliefs and expectations of health services from health care providers. Understanding peoples belief and their needs are very important for the care givers or health professionals. The concept of health is well understood by the main-stream Australian society on the basis of illness and disease in individuals and the belief in biomedical approach and the absence of pathology in human body (Taylor, p5). Indigenous people and people from other cultures have different approaches or typical way of understanding of health and health related issues in relation to physical, mental, emotional and their possible causes and treatments. For example in our culture, we believe in our traditional medicine (Herbal or Ayurvedic medicine) extracted from medicinal plants to prevent or cure certain diseases. We also believe in homeopathy, an alternative form of me dicine. Besides western biomedical treatments, traditional medicines are normally prescribed representing the co-existence of different cultural beliefs. Health is understood by people in different perspectives through experience and influenced by different factors such as biological, psychological and social through complex interactions between different cultures. According to Taylor men and women in Australia have different approaches to health related issues, behaviours and exposure to risk factors. Women are more vulnerable to psychological stress than men but more positive in seeking first hand information regarding their health and actively take preventive measures. There are some other factors that impact on health of people according to their family history, their disposable income and experience. It also depends on their living standards and geographical locations. As I come from different culture and place where we didnt have access to basic health facilities so I always wondered what it would be to understand the whole setting. I lived in a refugee camp where I had spent more than eighteen years and I had seen people affected with different diseases both communicable and non-communicable. Most of them could not get medical help as there were no doctors or nurses available and lack of financial support on time so they were just left with no options but to seek help from local shaman to ward off evil spirits from their bodies. As most of the people were illiterate who didnt understand and trust modern medicine and doctors, most of us did not know how it worked as there were no health promotion campaign and awareness of different diseases and their possible treatments. I have seen people afflicted with some of the worst kind of diseases and spent their whole miserable life without any help until they died. Most of the family members in the commu nity just waited helplessly to end his or her life. I have seen some of my own friends, relatives and neighbours dying of diseases which were treatable only if they had access to medical facilities and medicines in time. For example I nearly died of typhoid, jaundice and cholera when I was in the refugee camp and on top of that I was malnourished and didnt know that it is all due to unhygienic food, lack of clean drinking water and polluted environment. I relied on herbal medicines and animism form of worship, as there were no possible help to get treated with western medicines. As such the whole scenario has changed my understanding of health and treatment of different diseases through different means of settings. It is all possible to understand the concept of health by following the correct form of practising health and hygiene. Now we have been resettled here in Australia so we have access to medical facilities but still some of the elderly people in our community do not trust m edicines prescribed by the practitioners. Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more. Many factors influence health status and a countrys ability to provide quality health services for its people. Ministries of health are important actors, but so are other government departments, donor organizations, civil society groups and communities themselves. For example: investments in roads can improve access to health services; inflation targets can constrain health spending; and civil service reform can create opportunities or limits to hiring more health workers. WHOs work on Health and development tries to make sense of these complex links. It is concerned with the impact of better health on development and poverty reduction, and conversely, with the impact of development policies on the achievement of health goals. In particular, it aims to build support across government for higher levels of investment in health, and to ensure that health is prioritized within overall economic and development plans. In this context, health and development work supports health policies that respond to the needs of the poorest groups. WHO also works with donors to ensure that aid for health is adequate, effective and targeted at priority health problems. This website provides an update on WHO activities in the area of health and development, including recent publications, reports of country work and information on training courses and capacity-building activities